Literature Review
Leadership: Responsibly Influencing by Empowering Others
Introduction
Leadership is multifaceted, constantly changing and adjusting to different contexts and times drawing from many competencies. The Master of Arts in Leadership (MAiL) program has defined five core competencies as key to the developmental process of leaders. Looking specifically at one of those competencies, responsible influencer, has been the catalyst for this research. Leaders as responsible influencers strive to foster collaborative environments of equality and inclusion that promote human flourishing, and create and lead high-performance teams while collectively pursuing the vision, mission and goals of the organization (MAiL Handbook). One of the means by which leaders can accomplish these objectives is through the understanding and practice of empowering others. This literature review will focus on leadership through empowering others and how that contributes to organizational effectiveness. The first section will look at how empowering is defined through the articles, looking for commonalities and unique perspectives, the second, on the effect that empowerment has on an individual, and third the effect that empowering others has on the organization as a whole. Fourth, it is important to look at different leadership styles and how those relate to empowerment. This review just scratches the surface of information about this important topic of empowering others, and yet hopefully provides a good foundational understanding of this crucial aspect of leadership.
Defining Empowerment
The concept of empowerment is multi-dimensional as seen through the varied definitions in the literature. Foundationally, empowerment can be viewed in two different ways. First, it can be viewed from a relational dynamic where it becomes the process by which a leader shares power with subordinates (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). According to the New Oxford American Dictionary, the definition of the verb empower is, “give (someone) authority or power to do something.” Therefore the idea of delegation and decentralization of decision-making is very key to the notion of empowerment. This involvement entails building individual capacity, ownership and responsibility (Amah & Ahiauzu, 2013). From this more structural approach, empowerment is deeply rooted in job design and the opportunity to contribute to decision-making and exerting influence regarding work tasks (Martin, Rowlinson, Fellows, & Lui, 2012). Second, empowering can be viewed from a motivational construct (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). Conger (1989) one of the foundational thinkers on empowering others, challenges us to think of empowerment as an internal process of strengthening an individual’s belief in their own sense of effectiveness. Therefore it doesn’t just involve changing external factors but internal beliefs (Conger, 1989). According to the New Oxford American Dictionary, the second dictionary definition for empower is, “make (someone) stronger and more confident, especially in controlling their life and claiming their rights.” Empowerment then means to enable rather than just delegate (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). It also involves increased individual motivation because of greater decision-making autonomy (Hui-Ling & Yu-Hsuan, 2011). In contrast to the limited definition of empowerment as simply delegation, enabling implies motivation through a sense of personal efficacy (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). Expanding on this idea Murari and Kripa (2012) say that empowering is the process of enabling or authorizing individuals to think, behave, and take action, creating a state of feeling self-empowered. Broadening our definition of empowering opens up many more opportunities for discussion and research.
Effects of Empowerment on the Individual
Although research tends to mostly look at how the empowerment process has organizational benefits, it also plays a key role for the individual. Providing employees with a sense of personal vision, mission and support along with opportunities for development can be among the most empowering leadership behaviors (Martin, et al., 2012). The more employees are involved in important aspects of organizational life, the more they gain pleasure in working for the organization. This results in more long-term commitments and a willingness to stay with an organization (Amah & Ahiauzu, 2013). Transformational leaders, a leadership style closely connected to empowering others (which will be discussed later in this paper), were shown to have subordinates who report greater job satisfaction and will more often exert extra effort (Ozaralli, 2003). It was confirmed in other studies that employee involvement had a positive impact on job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Amah & Ahiauzu, 2013). Empowering others causes inspiration, which builds the self-confidence in subordinates in regards to their ability to attain their goals (Ozaralli, 2003). When empowering is seen as an enabling process, it affects both initiation and people’s persistence in their task behaviors (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). These empowering practices can also be useful in motivating subordinates to persist through difficult organizational and environmental obstacles (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). When leaders are able to remove the conditions within their organizations that lead to feelings of powerlessness, it has been shown that employees perform at their productive and creative best (Ozaralli, 2003). When empowered team members believe they are autonomous and have an impact they are more likely to make creative contributions in their work (Ozaralli, 2003). Researchers have concluded creating autonomy in the day-to-day work environment and giving people a sense of ownership and control over their own work and ideas fosters creativity (Kollmann, et al., 2013). Empowering leadership behaviors can also provide some unique benefits resulting directly from the leader subordinate relationship. When a leader empowers others they send important cues to subordinates about the extent to which an open and trusting relationship can be developed. These positive relationships with employees can help to develop their trust and loyalty and may strengthen their emotional attachment to the work unit (Hassan, et al. 2013). It can also modify the perception of the leaders effectiveness. Developing such relationships within the organization could help attract the best and brightest employees, and even enhance positive and lasting relationship with external stakeholders (Hassan, et al., 2013). There can be a ripple effect that can benefits many individuals and relationships. As found in the literature, the benefits of empowerment for the individual seemed to be overwhelmingly positive, and I could certainly add a voice from personal observation and experience that would confirm all these positive benefits. However, this brings to light some immediate questions. Are there any negative results for particular individuals from the empowering process? Do some personality types benefit to a greater extent from feeling empowered? Or, are the positive results more universal, filling a basic human need to feel valued, appreciated, and ultimately in control of one’s own destiny. Perhaps this quote answers some of these questions. "Great leaders often inspire their followers to high levels of achievement by showing them how their work contributes to worthwhile ends. It is an emotional appeal to some of the most fundamental needs-the need to be important, to make a difference, to feel useful, to be part of a successful and worthwhile enterprise" (Conger, 1989, p. 23).
Effects of Empowerment on the Organization
From an organizational standpoint, there are many factors that facilitate overall success. As seen in the literature, the empowerment process is a key contributing factor to organizational effectiveness. Empowering or instilling a sense of power to individuals at all levels of an organization is at the root of organizational effectiveness especially during times of transition and transformation (Conger 1989). One important job, as a leader, is to be able to lead organizations through challenging times and difficult transitions. Empowering others is an important tool for leaders in setting and achieving higher goals and moving organizations forward (Conger 1989). The more employees have the opportunity to be involved the greater the sense of ownership and responsibility towards the organization, which in turn enhances commitment and loyalty. There is definitely a positive association between employee involvement and profitability (Amah & Ahiauzu, 2013). The feelings of empowerment, when shared in a group, and when fueled by a transformational leadership style, can ultimately result in a high level of team effectiveness (Ozaralli, 2003). One particular study showed a positive association between employee involvement and profitability in a Nigerian banking environment, which helped establish the potential cross-cultural application of this idea (Amah & Ahiauzu, 2013). Another study suggested that managers in both public and private organizations can utilize empowering behaviors to create the quality leader-member exchange relationships that provide for positive organizational outcomes (Hassan, et al., 2013). Empowerment can have a positive effect on the overall organization. Murari and Kripa (2012) suggest that by encouraging employees to take more responsibility through the sharing of power and responsibility by working together, it creates a climate that encourages continuous learning, a culture which values initiative, honesty, and personal achievement, which results in an organization that is responsive and flexible. This will only lead to a competitive advantage (Murari & Kripa, 2012).
Leadership Models and Empowerment
More recently the leadership literature has shifted its focus from more traditional models of leadership, to leadership approaches that could be termed ‘new leadership’. These new approaches give more attention to charismatic and affective elements of leadership and deal more with intrinsic motivation and follower development (Northouse, 2010). Certainly these new leadership paradigms make room for and encompass this idea of empowering others. Two such leadership styles that were addressed in the literature surrounding empowerment were servant leadership and transformational leadership. In his book, the Case For Servant Leadership, Kent Keith (2008) says, “A servant leader is simply a leader who is focused on serving others” (p. 9). “What sets servant-leaders apart from other leaders is that they are focused on others, not just themselves, and they are motivated to make life better for others, not just for themselves” (Keith, 2008, p. 10). Servant leadership emphasizes collaboration, trust, empathy, and the ethical use of power, expressing itself in humility, authenticity, personal acceptance, and stewardship, and is demonstrated by empowering and developing people (Murari & Kripa, 2012). The servant leader is therefore prepared to share power through empowerment, involving followers in planning and decision making, so the employees feel it is their responsibility to take the business to the next level of success (Murari & Kripa, 2012). Similarly, transformational leadership also embraces the idea of empowering others. “Transformational leadership is the process whereby a person engages with others and creates a connection that raises the level of motivation and morality in both the leader and the follower” (Northouse, 2008, p. 210). Transformational leaders therefore create a dynamic organizational vision and a participative climate where followers can feel empowered to take a more innovative approach to perform their jobs, and assume the authority to take actions to enhance the vision of the leader (Ozaralli, 2003). This tends to also encourage creativity. It is important to note here that transformational leadership does not seem to be exclusive as a source of empowerment (Ozaralli, 2003). Some studies suggested that particular leadership styles could have more effect on empowerment in specific organizational contexts (Martin, et al., 2012). There were some teams where task-oriented leadership was positively and significantly related to psychological empowerment and the person-oriented leadership didn’t necessarily translate to all environments (Martin, et al., 2012). Another study found the link between leadership style and creating an empowering culture was weaker than expected (Masi & Cooke, 2000). These findings supported the notion of leadership adjustment to handle various contexts (Martin, et al., 2012). The most effective leaders must develop the dynamic capabilities that enable them to juggle both task and person oriented leadership styles in order to proactively respond to changing demands in order to continue to motivate individuals (Martin, et al., 2012). In another more recent study, the researchers proposed that transformational leadership can increase followers dependency on the leader, which would decrease their creativity (Kollmann, et al., 2013). Based on their research, they found that empowerment as a moderator can reduce the dependency on the leader caused by transformational leadership. Therefore transformational leadership style should be combined with empowering behavior to enhance employees creative performance and reduce possible negative outcomes (Kollmann, et al., 2013).
Conclusion
Within leadership studies, there is no single answer or perfect way to lead. There is much to learn from many of the ideas, notions, models, and theories of leadership. Empowering others, as one aspect of leadership, is no different. “Empowering is not a pill; it is not simply a technique, as many workshops and articles would lead us to believe. Rather, to be truly effective, it requires an understanding of subordinates and one’s organizational context” (Conger, 1989, p. 23). Even within the context of the limited literature that I read, this word of caution arises. There is growing evidence that cultures and what forms them, including values, behaviors and perceptions, all vary significantly so we must be careful not to assume that our findings would necessarily transfer to other various cultural contexts (Martin, et al., 2012). “Despite widespread assertions that empowerment is "good" and so, is desired, that assertion should be tempered through attention to the cultures of the persons to whom it is being applied” (Martin, et al, 2012). As we enter into a new era of globalization we will find within our organizations the need for employee empowerment so people will be positioned to make quick decisions and respond quickly to the rapid changes in the environment (Murari & Kripa, 2012). As leaders it is important to develop appropriate styles and have resources at our disposal to best utilize the human resources within our organizations. In her book Connective Leadership, Jean Lipman-Blumen calls for a new kind of leadership, to be able to navigate in a world of interdependence and diversity, which she calls Connective Leadership (Liman-Blumen, 1996). We must draw more heavily on some of the more subtle yet powerful achieving styles to make the connections necessary to lead well. By becoming more of an “entrusting” leader we can reach many untapped resources within our own people. “People charged with an entrusting leader’s task commonly discover they have much more to bring to their work than they originally thought, far more than simply ownership and responsibility. Their surprise and delight nourishes previously unrecognized wellsprings of creativity and self-confidence” (Liman-Blumen, 1996, p. 218). “Connective leaders understand that their own power actually expands as they empower others” (p. 240). So, as a leader, a responsible influencer, it is important to understand the influence I can have through empowering others. We must keep in mind, “This business of making another person feel good in the unspectacular course of his daily comings and goings is, in my view, the very essence of leadership” (Conger, 1989, p. 20). Empowering others is one of the keys to unlocking the potential in individuals and in our organizations.
Leadership is multifaceted, constantly changing and adjusting to different contexts and times drawing from many competencies. The Master of Arts in Leadership (MAiL) program has defined five core competencies as key to the developmental process of leaders. Looking specifically at one of those competencies, responsible influencer, has been the catalyst for this research. Leaders as responsible influencers strive to foster collaborative environments of equality and inclusion that promote human flourishing, and create and lead high-performance teams while collectively pursuing the vision, mission and goals of the organization (MAiL Handbook). One of the means by which leaders can accomplish these objectives is through the understanding and practice of empowering others. This literature review will focus on leadership through empowering others and how that contributes to organizational effectiveness. The first section will look at how empowering is defined through the articles, looking for commonalities and unique perspectives, the second, on the effect that empowerment has on an individual, and third the effect that empowering others has on the organization as a whole. Fourth, it is important to look at different leadership styles and how those relate to empowerment. This review just scratches the surface of information about this important topic of empowering others, and yet hopefully provides a good foundational understanding of this crucial aspect of leadership.
Defining Empowerment
The concept of empowerment is multi-dimensional as seen through the varied definitions in the literature. Foundationally, empowerment can be viewed in two different ways. First, it can be viewed from a relational dynamic where it becomes the process by which a leader shares power with subordinates (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). According to the New Oxford American Dictionary, the definition of the verb empower is, “give (someone) authority or power to do something.” Therefore the idea of delegation and decentralization of decision-making is very key to the notion of empowerment. This involvement entails building individual capacity, ownership and responsibility (Amah & Ahiauzu, 2013). From this more structural approach, empowerment is deeply rooted in job design and the opportunity to contribute to decision-making and exerting influence regarding work tasks (Martin, Rowlinson, Fellows, & Lui, 2012). Second, empowering can be viewed from a motivational construct (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). Conger (1989) one of the foundational thinkers on empowering others, challenges us to think of empowerment as an internal process of strengthening an individual’s belief in their own sense of effectiveness. Therefore it doesn’t just involve changing external factors but internal beliefs (Conger, 1989). According to the New Oxford American Dictionary, the second dictionary definition for empower is, “make (someone) stronger and more confident, especially in controlling their life and claiming their rights.” Empowerment then means to enable rather than just delegate (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). It also involves increased individual motivation because of greater decision-making autonomy (Hui-Ling & Yu-Hsuan, 2011). In contrast to the limited definition of empowerment as simply delegation, enabling implies motivation through a sense of personal efficacy (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). Expanding on this idea Murari and Kripa (2012) say that empowering is the process of enabling or authorizing individuals to think, behave, and take action, creating a state of feeling self-empowered. Broadening our definition of empowering opens up many more opportunities for discussion and research.
Effects of Empowerment on the Individual
Although research tends to mostly look at how the empowerment process has organizational benefits, it also plays a key role for the individual. Providing employees with a sense of personal vision, mission and support along with opportunities for development can be among the most empowering leadership behaviors (Martin, et al., 2012). The more employees are involved in important aspects of organizational life, the more they gain pleasure in working for the organization. This results in more long-term commitments and a willingness to stay with an organization (Amah & Ahiauzu, 2013). Transformational leaders, a leadership style closely connected to empowering others (which will be discussed later in this paper), were shown to have subordinates who report greater job satisfaction and will more often exert extra effort (Ozaralli, 2003). It was confirmed in other studies that employee involvement had a positive impact on job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Amah & Ahiauzu, 2013). Empowering others causes inspiration, which builds the self-confidence in subordinates in regards to their ability to attain their goals (Ozaralli, 2003). When empowering is seen as an enabling process, it affects both initiation and people’s persistence in their task behaviors (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). These empowering practices can also be useful in motivating subordinates to persist through difficult organizational and environmental obstacles (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). When leaders are able to remove the conditions within their organizations that lead to feelings of powerlessness, it has been shown that employees perform at their productive and creative best (Ozaralli, 2003). When empowered team members believe they are autonomous and have an impact they are more likely to make creative contributions in their work (Ozaralli, 2003). Researchers have concluded creating autonomy in the day-to-day work environment and giving people a sense of ownership and control over their own work and ideas fosters creativity (Kollmann, et al., 2013). Empowering leadership behaviors can also provide some unique benefits resulting directly from the leader subordinate relationship. When a leader empowers others they send important cues to subordinates about the extent to which an open and trusting relationship can be developed. These positive relationships with employees can help to develop their trust and loyalty and may strengthen their emotional attachment to the work unit (Hassan, et al. 2013). It can also modify the perception of the leaders effectiveness. Developing such relationships within the organization could help attract the best and brightest employees, and even enhance positive and lasting relationship with external stakeholders (Hassan, et al., 2013). There can be a ripple effect that can benefits many individuals and relationships. As found in the literature, the benefits of empowerment for the individual seemed to be overwhelmingly positive, and I could certainly add a voice from personal observation and experience that would confirm all these positive benefits. However, this brings to light some immediate questions. Are there any negative results for particular individuals from the empowering process? Do some personality types benefit to a greater extent from feeling empowered? Or, are the positive results more universal, filling a basic human need to feel valued, appreciated, and ultimately in control of one’s own destiny. Perhaps this quote answers some of these questions. "Great leaders often inspire their followers to high levels of achievement by showing them how their work contributes to worthwhile ends. It is an emotional appeal to some of the most fundamental needs-the need to be important, to make a difference, to feel useful, to be part of a successful and worthwhile enterprise" (Conger, 1989, p. 23).
Effects of Empowerment on the Organization
From an organizational standpoint, there are many factors that facilitate overall success. As seen in the literature, the empowerment process is a key contributing factor to organizational effectiveness. Empowering or instilling a sense of power to individuals at all levels of an organization is at the root of organizational effectiveness especially during times of transition and transformation (Conger 1989). One important job, as a leader, is to be able to lead organizations through challenging times and difficult transitions. Empowering others is an important tool for leaders in setting and achieving higher goals and moving organizations forward (Conger 1989). The more employees have the opportunity to be involved the greater the sense of ownership and responsibility towards the organization, which in turn enhances commitment and loyalty. There is definitely a positive association between employee involvement and profitability (Amah & Ahiauzu, 2013). The feelings of empowerment, when shared in a group, and when fueled by a transformational leadership style, can ultimately result in a high level of team effectiveness (Ozaralli, 2003). One particular study showed a positive association between employee involvement and profitability in a Nigerian banking environment, which helped establish the potential cross-cultural application of this idea (Amah & Ahiauzu, 2013). Another study suggested that managers in both public and private organizations can utilize empowering behaviors to create the quality leader-member exchange relationships that provide for positive organizational outcomes (Hassan, et al., 2013). Empowerment can have a positive effect on the overall organization. Murari and Kripa (2012) suggest that by encouraging employees to take more responsibility through the sharing of power and responsibility by working together, it creates a climate that encourages continuous learning, a culture which values initiative, honesty, and personal achievement, which results in an organization that is responsive and flexible. This will only lead to a competitive advantage (Murari & Kripa, 2012).
Leadership Models and Empowerment
More recently the leadership literature has shifted its focus from more traditional models of leadership, to leadership approaches that could be termed ‘new leadership’. These new approaches give more attention to charismatic and affective elements of leadership and deal more with intrinsic motivation and follower development (Northouse, 2010). Certainly these new leadership paradigms make room for and encompass this idea of empowering others. Two such leadership styles that were addressed in the literature surrounding empowerment were servant leadership and transformational leadership. In his book, the Case For Servant Leadership, Kent Keith (2008) says, “A servant leader is simply a leader who is focused on serving others” (p. 9). “What sets servant-leaders apart from other leaders is that they are focused on others, not just themselves, and they are motivated to make life better for others, not just for themselves” (Keith, 2008, p. 10). Servant leadership emphasizes collaboration, trust, empathy, and the ethical use of power, expressing itself in humility, authenticity, personal acceptance, and stewardship, and is demonstrated by empowering and developing people (Murari & Kripa, 2012). The servant leader is therefore prepared to share power through empowerment, involving followers in planning and decision making, so the employees feel it is their responsibility to take the business to the next level of success (Murari & Kripa, 2012). Similarly, transformational leadership also embraces the idea of empowering others. “Transformational leadership is the process whereby a person engages with others and creates a connection that raises the level of motivation and morality in both the leader and the follower” (Northouse, 2008, p. 210). Transformational leaders therefore create a dynamic organizational vision and a participative climate where followers can feel empowered to take a more innovative approach to perform their jobs, and assume the authority to take actions to enhance the vision of the leader (Ozaralli, 2003). This tends to also encourage creativity. It is important to note here that transformational leadership does not seem to be exclusive as a source of empowerment (Ozaralli, 2003). Some studies suggested that particular leadership styles could have more effect on empowerment in specific organizational contexts (Martin, et al., 2012). There were some teams where task-oriented leadership was positively and significantly related to psychological empowerment and the person-oriented leadership didn’t necessarily translate to all environments (Martin, et al., 2012). Another study found the link between leadership style and creating an empowering culture was weaker than expected (Masi & Cooke, 2000). These findings supported the notion of leadership adjustment to handle various contexts (Martin, et al., 2012). The most effective leaders must develop the dynamic capabilities that enable them to juggle both task and person oriented leadership styles in order to proactively respond to changing demands in order to continue to motivate individuals (Martin, et al., 2012). In another more recent study, the researchers proposed that transformational leadership can increase followers dependency on the leader, which would decrease their creativity (Kollmann, et al., 2013). Based on their research, they found that empowerment as a moderator can reduce the dependency on the leader caused by transformational leadership. Therefore transformational leadership style should be combined with empowering behavior to enhance employees creative performance and reduce possible negative outcomes (Kollmann, et al., 2013).
Conclusion
Within leadership studies, there is no single answer or perfect way to lead. There is much to learn from many of the ideas, notions, models, and theories of leadership. Empowering others, as one aspect of leadership, is no different. “Empowering is not a pill; it is not simply a technique, as many workshops and articles would lead us to believe. Rather, to be truly effective, it requires an understanding of subordinates and one’s organizational context” (Conger, 1989, p. 23). Even within the context of the limited literature that I read, this word of caution arises. There is growing evidence that cultures and what forms them, including values, behaviors and perceptions, all vary significantly so we must be careful not to assume that our findings would necessarily transfer to other various cultural contexts (Martin, et al., 2012). “Despite widespread assertions that empowerment is "good" and so, is desired, that assertion should be tempered through attention to the cultures of the persons to whom it is being applied” (Martin, et al, 2012). As we enter into a new era of globalization we will find within our organizations the need for employee empowerment so people will be positioned to make quick decisions and respond quickly to the rapid changes in the environment (Murari & Kripa, 2012). As leaders it is important to develop appropriate styles and have resources at our disposal to best utilize the human resources within our organizations. In her book Connective Leadership, Jean Lipman-Blumen calls for a new kind of leadership, to be able to navigate in a world of interdependence and diversity, which she calls Connective Leadership (Liman-Blumen, 1996). We must draw more heavily on some of the more subtle yet powerful achieving styles to make the connections necessary to lead well. By becoming more of an “entrusting” leader we can reach many untapped resources within our own people. “People charged with an entrusting leader’s task commonly discover they have much more to bring to their work than they originally thought, far more than simply ownership and responsibility. Their surprise and delight nourishes previously unrecognized wellsprings of creativity and self-confidence” (Liman-Blumen, 1996, p. 218). “Connective leaders understand that their own power actually expands as they empower others” (p. 240). So, as a leader, a responsible influencer, it is important to understand the influence I can have through empowering others. We must keep in mind, “This business of making another person feel good in the unspectacular course of his daily comings and goings is, in my view, the very essence of leadership” (Conger, 1989, p. 20). Empowering others is one of the keys to unlocking the potential in individuals and in our organizations.